As a calcium sensor protein it co-localizes and interacts with the SERCA2/phospholamban complex and modulates both systolic and diastolic ryanodine receptor function and cardiomyocyte SR calcium release, respectively.26 Failing hearts are characterized by progressively diminished S100A1 protein levels, and these low levels inversely correlate with the severity of the disease.26 These observations suggest that the down-regulation of S100 protein may be pathological. Indeed, S100A1 knock-out mice showed enhanced #learn more keyword# susceptibility to functional deterioration in response to chronic cardiac pressure overload stress and ischemic damage.27,28 In contrast, mice with overexpression

of S100A1 are hypercontractile and maintained almost normal left ventricular function following myocardial infarction.28 Studies in a large-animal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical model of heart failure suggested that S100A1 may be an attractive target of cardiac gene therapy.29 The calcium leak through the ryanodine receptors is believed to contribute to the abnormal calcium cycling in failing hearts, and therefore this appears to be a target for treatment. In addition to reducing the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium load, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a leak may also trigger arrhythmias and increase energy consumption. A pharmacological agent, JTV519, can

reduce the ryanodine receptor calcium leak, and this was shown to preserve contractile performance in a heart failure animal model.30 JTV519 was originally suggested to increase the binding Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of calstabin2 to RyR2. However, the original molecule JTV519 was not entirely specific to the ryanodine receptor and blocked in addition the L-type calcium channels and potassium channels. Another molecule S107 was shown to inhibit arrhythmias in a catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical mouse model.31 The effects of “type”:”entrez-protein”,”attrs”:S44121″S44121,

a more ryanodine leak-specific agent, is currently being analyzed in patients with congestive heart failure who are at risk for ventricular arrhythmias in a phase 2 clinical study. TARGETING CONTRACTILITY these IN HEART FAILURE The β-adrenoreceptor transduces the signal through Gs protein to adenylate cyclase, which leads to increased generation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which then interacts with protein kinase A (PKA) and other intracellular effector proteins. Currently, 10 different isoforms of adenylate cyclase have been cloned and characterized in mammals, of which the adult human left ventricle appears to express predominantly adenylate cyclase isoform 6 (AC6). Failing human hearts have reduced amounts of basal cAMP and impaired cAMP generation in response to agonist stimulation.32 However, results of clinical trials that aimed to increase β-adrenoreceptor activation by the agonist dobutamine or to increase the cAMP content through inhibition of the phosphodiesterase that breaks it down by milrinone have been disappointing.

2010). Classifiers built from FDG-PET data might perform somewhat better. For example, in a study evaluating biomarkers from the ADNI study for predicting worsening among MCI patients, glucose metabolism of the entorhinal or retrosplenial cortices were significantly correlated with change in MMSE over a 2-year period. Of the MRI measures, only retrosplenial gray matter reductions were useful for predicting change, but did Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical so for both MMSE and CDR sum of boxes score (Walhovd et al. 2010). As a clinical tool,

PET scans are useful for predicting progressive dementia, and may have sensitivity of 93% and specificity up to 76% when interpreted by an expert nuclear medicine physician (Silverman et al. 2001). However, it might be difficult to replicate these results in the absence of such an expert reader. This work has several limitations. First, classifiers could incorporate other types of data, such as genetic testing or neuropsychological measures. Other investigators have evaluated

a combination of PET and neuropsychological Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical data for predicting changes in cognition and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical daily BI-D1870 cost functioning, with the results suggesting that FDG-PET makes an independent contribution to such a model and might be superior to cognitive testing alone (Landau et al. 2010, 2011). One of the classifiers presented here was enhanced by the addition of FAQ score, a brief informant-based measure of daily functioning. It remains to be seen, however, whether cosine similarity scores as derived here can make an additive contribution to cognitive testing for diagnosing AD or predicting cognitive and functional decline. Future work will look to combinations Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of imaging measures, apolipoprotein E genotyping, and neuropsychological test scores for performing prognostications. Second, although classifiers using logistic regression have the advantage of being familiar to most clinicians, advances Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in machine learning (e.g., support vector machines) could add substantially to the quality of diagnoses and prognostications generated using the methods outlined here. Third,

these data were acquired on a highly specific subset of patients with AD and nondementia memory impairment. Classifiers trained with these methods might not perform as well on a more heterogeneous patient population, such as the general population of patients presenting to a given memory disorders clinic, SPTLC1 because other disease entities (vascular dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies) and other forms of nondementia cognitive impairment (executive dysfunction, progressive aphasia) may render the cosine similarity scores derived by this method less relevant. On the other hand, the method introduced here is meant to have general utility and could theoretically be adapted to apply to any of these problems. IR is a vast and rapidly developing field with real and highly visible advances.

4%) whereas majority of Selleckchem CHIR-258 females were of 51-60-year-old category (44%), followed by more than 60-year-old group (36%). All in all, 93.5% males and

96% of females were more than 50 years old. Out of 158 patients in this study, 7.6% patients had a positive family history. Dietary history of intake salted, fermented fish was present in 67.7% of patients, whereas history of consumption of smoked Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical meat was found in 77.8% of patients. Only 27.8% of patients in our study had history of regular consumption of fresh fruits. About 35.4% of the patients had poor drinking water source. Nearly, 67.6% of males and 44% of females had smoking history. Male to female ratio of smoking was 3.3:1. History of alcohol consumption Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was present in 55.5% of male and 10% of female cases. Combined

consumption of alcohol and smoking was present in 33.5% of patients. Vague abdominal discomfort was the most common presenting symptom in 61.4% of patients followed by weight loss (59.5%), nausea (39.9%), early satiety and poor appetite (34.8%), vomiting (20.9%), dysphagia (18.4%) and melaena (15.8%) Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (Figure 1). About 25.3% of patients presented with abdominal lump, 55.5% of patients with tumour at cardia had history of dyphagia, 62.3% of patients with tumour in antro-pyloric region had history of weight loss, and 84.2% of patients had multiple presenting symptoms (Table 1). Pallor was noted in 48.7% of patients at presentation, 53/108 males (49.07%) and 24/50 females (48%). Most common site Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of gastric cancer in our study was antrum

(50.6%) followed by cardia (17.1%), body (13.9%), pylorus (13.3%) and fundus (2.5%). The most common site of tumour in both males and females was antrum, 57.4% and 36% respectively. The second most common site was cardia (17.6%) in males and body of the stomach (22%) in females. The most common Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical histological type was adenocarcinoma (95.6%) followed by squamous cell carcinoma (3.2%). About 44.3% of the tumours were poorly differentiated, 35.8% moderately differentiated and 19.6% well differentiated (Table 2). Majority of the patients were of T3 stage (53.2%) at presentation followed by T2 (23.4%), T4 (15.8%) and T1 (7.6%). Idoxuridine Likewise, N2 nodal staging was leading with 35.4% followed by N0 (27.8%), N1 (20.3%) and N3 (16.5%). Overall 37.3% of patients had distant metastasis at the time of presentation. Liver was the most common site of metastasis found in 17.1% patients followed by left supraclavicular lymph node (7.6%), peritoneal meatastais (7%) and multiple metastases (5.1%). Majority of the patients in our study were found to have locoregional disease at presentation (62.7%); of these early gastric cancers was found in 7.6% patients (Figure 2). Figure 1 Common symptoms in gastric cancer patients. Table 1 Symptoms with respect to location of tumour Table 2 Demographic and Clinico-pathologic characteristics of patients with gastric cancer Figure 2 Frequency of overall staging.

1,2 Higher-order EF, such as problem solving and planning, typically builds upon a combination of these three components. As a regulatory capacity, EF is central to a range of normal and

abnormal behavior particularly relevant for psychiatric illness, and has been suggested to impact psychiatric functioning Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical through involvement in, and overlap with, emotional regulation (ER) processes. Indeed, both EF and ER deficits are pervasive throughout psychiatric disorders, to varying degrees of severity and specificity, and hence may be of significant transdiagnostic importance. There is evidence that the neural circuitry that supports EF and ER is Rigosertib largely overlapping. In this review we will focus specifically on the contribution of circuit abnormalities relevant to Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical EF and ER to psychiatric disorders. We restrict our focus to patients aged 60 and below to insure that the relationship of cognitive deficits to psychiatric disorders is not primarily due to age-related changes in cognition. We will begin with

an overview of the neural systems underlying EF and ER, followed by a description of how deficits in these systems, or their behavioral output, subserve a range Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of psychiatric disorders. Finally, we will examine the relationship between EF and ER capacities and current treatments, as well as avenues for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical novel treatments through a neurobiological understanding of EF and ER. Neural systems supporting

EF and ER Cognitive regulation of behavior and emotions is supported by several circuits in the PFC. While the PFC is typically not necessary for the learning or performance of simple tasks, when task demands change, the PFC is required for proper adjustments Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in behavior to maintain accuracy and goal-directed behavior. This capacity of the PFC is conserved across mammalian species.3-5 Viewed this not way, the PFC is responsible for maintaining an internal representation of current goals and modulating activity in brain regions responsible for perception or action in order to flexibly achieve these goals. In order to accomplish this, the PFC must be able to maintain a representation of goals in the face of distraction, update these representations as new information is received through multiple sensory modalities, and provide a feedback signal that can select the neural pathways appropriate for the current task context.6 Within this broad capacity for EF, several more specific subgroupings of functions are possible, commonly considered to be inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.

However, these bioinformatic predictions have not been confirmed experimentally. Grantham’s analysis of amino acid substitution suggests that the p.P153L change could be pathogenic (11). This is supported by conservation of this amino acid in all paralogs and orthologs identified in a wide range of species (Fig. ​(Fig.3).3).

The Pro to Leu change is close to a potential Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical coiled domain in GDAP1. Whether this change affects the properties of the coiled domain is not known. Figure 3 Conservation of proline at GDAP1 position 153 across various species. Hs (Homo sapiens), Pp (Pongo pygmaeus), Mm (Mus musculus), Pt (Pan troglodytes), Bt (Bos taurus), Cf (Canis familiaris), Rn (Rattus norvegicus), Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Gg (Gallus gallus), Dr (Danio rerio … Discussion For recessive traits, homozygous mutations enable direct genotype/phenotype correlations in vivo whereas the interpretation of compound heterozygous alleles are confounded by potentially different contributions to the overall phenotype

by the distinct mutant alleles and the disease state representing some outcome of a combination of mutations. Limited information is available with respect to complete clinical, electrophysiological and neuropathological characterization of specific GDAP1 mutations. Even less is known Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical regarding longitudinal clinical follow-up of patients with mutations in GDAP1. We identified a P153L homozygous missense mutation in a Polish patient with severe CMT, the product of a consanguineous parentage. The mutation occurs in a highly conserved proline close to a potential coiled domain and is likely to alter the structure of the GDAP1 protein. The electrophysiological studies were consistent with axonopathy. Neuropathology Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical revealed mixed, but mostly axonal, changes with preservation of nerve fibres similar to those observed in two other patients (12). While some mutations in GDAP1 segregate with pure axonal neuropathies, there is currently no published morphological evidence for pure demyelinating CMT1 neuropathy. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Even

within the same family, the patients harbouring identical GDAP1 mutation may manifest with axonal and demyelinating 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl neuropathy. In a consanguineous Turkish family, in which the R282C mutation in the GDAP1 gene was identified, axonal neuropathy was diagnosed in the proband, whereas a sister of the proband Silmitasertib in vivo manifested with demyelinating neuropathy (13). In the absence of an animal model (e.g. Gdap1 deficient mice), questions as to whether axonal or demyelinating changes play a primary role remain unanswered. GDAP1 is expressed both in neurons and Schwann cells, its protein product is localized in the mitochondrial outer membrane (9). Overexpression induces mitochondrial fragmentation without inducing apoptosis, a functional antithesis to mitofusin. Mutations of MFN2, that encodes mitofusin, are apparently one of the most common causes of inherited axonopathy (14, 15).

fMRI studies reveal the involvement of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex in the modafinil-induced improvement of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. All studies discussed in this review had small sample sizes, which makes them vulnerable for type II errors. Possibly

due to the small sample sizes the positive outcomes did not reach the level of statistical significance. Positive effects of modafinil on cognition and fatigue are best demonstrated in patients with poor pre-existing functioning. Evidence for this hypothesis is provided by research in both animal and human studies [Hunter et Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical al. 2006; McFadden et al. 2010]. Since most studies did not exclude

relatively good functioning patients, the effect of modafinil might be underestimated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (ceiling effect). Whether this could also account for armodafinil is unclear. The antipsychotic drugs used in the reviewed studies differed, even within the study populations. Modafinil and armodafinil might exert different effects when added to typical or atypical antipsychotic drugs. Modafinil may particularly improve cognitive functioning in patients using typical antipsychotic drugs [Spence et al. 2005], while effects of modafinil on activity and fatigue might be stronger in patients using atypical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical antipsychotic drugs, since atypical drugs have more sedative side effects. Effect measurements differed between the accounted studies, which makes a comparison difficult and for some studies even Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical impossible. Some studies use subjective measurements, others a small subset of cognitive tests, that do not cover all cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. To be able to fully http://www.selleckchem.com/products/azd9291.html assess the usefulness Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of modafinil and armodafinil as add-on therapy in schizophrenia, measurement

instruments used to assess cognitive function have to be more uniform. Modafinil and armodafinil dosage and duration of treatment and follow up differ widely. The defined daily dosage of modafinil for narcolepsy is 300 mg/day. It could be that a lower dosage causes only small effect sizes or is ineffective. Whether modafinil and armodafinil can establish weight loss in patients with antipsychotic-induced overweight is unclear. If so, weight reduction may be caused by an increase in activity or by an unknown other mechanism. When modafinil and armodafinil produce weight all loss, it would therefore be interesting to investigate whether or not weight reduction is more pronounced in inactive patients who become more active with modafinil and armodafinil than in active patients with no activity increase in response to the substance. The risk of worsening of psychotic symptoms and, in the case of clozapine use, a rise of clozapine serum levels must be taken into account when the addition of modafinil is considered.

6 These cortical regions—which are anatomically connected to the amygdala,

hypothalamus, and brain stem—are thought to be implicated in the integration of experiential stimuli with emotional salience.12,13 Furthermore, the orbital frontal cortex has been shown to be involved with emotional processing biases in depressed individuals.14,15 Response to CBT was also found to be associated with a reduction of glucose metabolic activity in the medial PFC.6,7 This cortical area, which seems to be implicated in self-referential processing of emotional stimuli, is activated during a wide variety of emotional tasks, including attention to subjective feeling,16 recollection of emotionally charged personal life events,17 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and processing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of emotion-related meanings.18 The fMRI activation studies conducted by Dichter et al8 and Buchheim et al9 indicate that BATD and long-term, psychodynamic therapy can also modulate the activity of brain regions and circuits implicated in various aspects of emotion processing. The reduced activation of the anterior hippocampus/amygdala complex detected after psychodynamic therapy,

in response to personally relevant Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical material, is particularly interesting given that this cerebral structure displays enhanced reactivity in MDD.19,20,21 Along the same lines, a reduction in the reactivity of the subgenual Belinostat clinical trial cingulate cortex was also detected in the Buchheim et al study. Now this portion of the cingulate cortex appears to be critically involved in mood dysregulation and its resolution.22 It is important to recognize that the functional neuroimaging studies of psychotherapy for MDD do not always yield similar findings. Several potentially biasing factors may lead to contrasting results and render problematic a direct comparison between these studies. For example,

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical MDD may have many different causes that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are difficult to differentiate clinically.23 This may lead to a variability in symptoms and regional brain abnormalities across depressed individuals. The differences in rationale, technique, and efficacy of the various psychotherapeutic PAK6 modalities investigated constitute another factor. Furthermore, inconsistencies in results can be produced by a more or less rigid adherence to a given framework,24 varying numbers of sessions, distinct milieus (eg, individual vs group therapy), and the use of single vs multiple therapists.25 Other methodological factors that vary between neuroimaging studies of psychotherapy include the phenomena measured (eg, “metabolic activity” vs “hemodynamic activity”), the sensitivity and spatial/temporal resolutions of the neuroimaging techniques used, and the methods for examining regional brain activity (eg, voxel-based techniques, region-of-interest-based approaches).1,25 The sample size, the type of control participants (eg, healthy, waitlist), and the point of the second scan within the treatment course, may also lead to divergent results.

Animal models of psychiatric disorders can belong to both categories. The most simple models, notably those aimed at testing psychotropic drugs or other treatments—“empirical validity models”53—often have a limited, if any, theoretical background. This is also the case for those developed to simulate a specific sign or symptom (“Behavioral

similarity models”). However, “theory-driven” and “mechanistic” models (according to McKinney’s terminology), in particular those developed to study etiological aspects and/or the neurochemical and genetic mechanisms underlying anxiety disorders, often Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical have an elaborate theoretical background. How do we measure anxiety in animals? The Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical only PKI-587 mouse variables that can be observed and measured in

animals are the behavioral and physiological responses elicited when they are exposed to more or less naturalistic, potentially anxiogenic situations under controlled laboratory conditions. Setup and protocols used to record these experimental data are usually called “tests,” and constitute instruments (or tools) to measure anxiety-related parameters. It should be mentioned that, in the animal research literature, particularly as regards the so-called Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical preclinical (pharmacological) studies, the term “model” is often used abusively to characterize a test, ie, a particular experimental setup (eg, “The elevated plus-maze as a model of anxiety in rodents”!). This usage should be avoided, because it is misleading: a model in the true Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sense has a more elaborate theoretical background and may include several tests. In the following section, we will mention a few examples of (mainly ethological) anxiety tests for rodents, which are by far the most common species used as animals models nowadays. There are over 30 different procedures (and many variations) described in the literature, with two main categories: unconditioned

response tests (which require no training and usually have a high eco/ethological Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical validity) and Astemizole conditioned response tests (which often require extensive training and may show interference with mnemonic and motivational processes).54 A few examples are shown in Table I. More information regarding practical aspects of testing can be found in the literature55-58 and in the references in Table I. Although measurements can be done using a single test, it is better to use a battery of these tests (for instance, the open field, the EPM, and a dark/light transition test) to assess each individual’s behavioral phenotype, since these tests measure anxiety under different conditions.59 Data obtained from different tests can be combined to create ”derived“ variables which offer a more complete description of the individual behavioral profiles.

102 Most candidate genes for association studies with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression have been derived from neurotransmitter systems involved in antidepressant drug action. Only some of the findings could be consistently replicated, Including associations between the monoamlnoxldase A (MAOA)103 and catechol-o-methyl-transferase (COMT) gene and bipolar disorder and tryptophan hydroxllase 2 (TPH2) gene and unipolar depression (Table III). Further conclusive evidence exists for an Involvement of the D-aminoacidoxidase

activator DAOA (G72)/G30 locus In the susceptibility for bipolar disorder, but also for schizophrenia. A large number of studies Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical have examined the genetic associations between polymorphisms In the Danusertib cell line serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SLC6A4) gene and bipolar disorder and unipolar depression. Most attention focused on a functional Insertion/deletion polymorphism In the promoter region to SLC6A4, known as 5HTTLPR. Despite several positive results, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the number of negative replications Is Increasing, and the relevance of this polymorphism Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for the susceptibility to bipolar disorder or unipolar depression Is meanwhile being challenged. Table III. Replicated findings of genetic

associations with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression. 5-HT, serotonin Besides SLC6A4, P2X ligand-gated Ion channel 7125 Is the only gene showing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical replicated effects for susceptibility to both bipolar disorder and unipolar depression. This gene codes for a cation-selective Ion channel expressed In central glial cells as well as In neurons, and Is assumed to regulate Immune function and neurotransmitter release.136,137 In summary, genetic association studies In stress-related disorders have provided evidence for an involvement of several other genes not identified by basic genetic studies on stress response.

Since an inappropriate response to repeated and/or continuous stress mediates the susceptibility to stress-related disorders, these genes are also assumed to moderate the stress response. We have reviewed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical genetic association studies in hypertension, coronary artery disease, bipolar disorder, and unipolar depression. Due to the large and rapidly increasing number of publications, it is impossible to provide a complete overview. However, we have tried to summarize the most consistent and most crotamiton frequently discussed findings. It is important to note that different classes of candidate genes have been investigated in the four diagnostic groups reported in this review, despite their common relationship to stress and inappropriate stress response. While candidate genes in hypertension and coronary artery disease are primarily related to the RAAS and to inflammation/immune response, respectively, the majority of candidate genes in bipolar disorder and unipolar depression are derived from monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems.

111 A recent study showed that depressive symptoms are related to an high ratio

of KYN/KYNA in depression.114 The increase of this ratio reflects that in depressed states KYN may be preferentially metabolized to QUIN, while the KYNA pathway is neglected. The increase of QUIN was observed to be associated with several prominent features of depression: decrease in reaction time115 and cognitive deficits, in particular difficulties in learning.112 In an animal model, an increase of QUIN and 3-hydroxykynurenine was associated with anxiety.116 QUIN was shown to cause an over-release of glutamate in the striatum and in the cortex, presumably by presynaptic mechanisms.117 The QUIN pathway of the kynurenine metabolism Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical – directed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical by proinflammatorycytokines

– might be the key Blebbistatin in vivo mechanism involved in the increased glutamatergic neurotransmission in MD,106 while it is unclear whether QUIN itself has depressiogenic properties. Thus, an excess of QUIN might be associated with excess glutamatergic activation. COX-2 inhibition as a therapeutic approach in schizophrenia and depression COX inhibition provokes differential effects on kynurenine metabolism: while COX-1 inhibition increases the levels of KYNA, COX-2 inhibition decreases them.118 Therefore, psychotic symptoms and cognitive dysfunctions, observed during therapy with COX-1 inhibitors, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical were assigned to the COX-1 mediated increase of KYNA. The reduction of KYNA levels, by a prostaglandin-mediated mechanism, might be an additional mechanism to the above-described immunological mechanism for therapeutic effects of selective COX-2 inhibitors in schizophrenia.118 Indeed, in a prospective, randomized, double-blind study of therapy Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib added on to risperidone

in acute exacerbation of schizophrenia, a therapeutic effect of celecoxib was observed.119 Immunologically, an increase of the type-1 immune response was found in the celecoxib treatment group.120 The finding of a clinical advantage of COX-2 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical inhibition, however, could not be replicated in a second study. Further analysis of the data revealed that the outcome depends on the duration of Olopatadine the disease.121 This observation is in accordance with results from animal studies showing that the effects of COX-2 inhibition on cytokines, hormones, and particularly on behavioral symptoms are dependent on the duration of the preceding changes and the time point of application of the COX-2 inhibitor.122 In subsequent clinical studies following a similar randomized double-blind placebo-controlled add-on design of 400 mg celecoxib to risperidone (in one study risperidone or olanzapine) in partly different patient populations, similar positive results of cyclo-oxygenase inhibition were able to be obtained: in a Chinese population of first-manifestation schizophrenics,123 and in an Iranian sample of chronic schizophrenics.