Therapy of ALD is based on the stage of the disease and the specific goals of treatment.169, 170 Complications of cirrhosis, including evidence of hepatic failure (encephalopathy)

as well as portal hypertension (ascites, variceal bleeding), are treated as in patients with non-ALD, with additional attention given to other organ dysfunction associated specifically with alcohol.170 Abstinence is the most important therapeutic intervention for patients with ALD.171 Abstinence has been shown to improve the outcome and histological features of hepatic injury, to reduce portal pressure and decrease progression to cirrhosis, and to improve survival at all stages in patients with ALD.171–174 However, this selleck chemicals may be less likely to occur in female patients.172, 175, 176 This improvement can be relatively Ulixertinib datasheet rapid, and in 66% of patients abstaining from alcohol, significant improvement was observed in 3 months.177 Continued alcohol ingestion results in an increased risk of portal hypertensive bleeding, especially in patients who have previously bled, and worsens both short-term and long-term survival.178 Recidivism is a major risk in all patients at any time following abstinence.179, 180 Estimates vary, depending on the time course of follow-up and the definition

of recidivism (e.g., any alcohol consumption versus moderate to harmful drinking), but over the course of 1 year, relapse rates range from 67%-81%.181 Therefore, several medications have been tried to help sustain abstinence. One of the first agents to be used, disulfiram, was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1983. However, a review of the published literature concluded that there was little evidence that disulfiram enhances abstinence,182 and based on its poor

tolerability, its use has been largely supplanted by newer agents. Naltrexone, which was approved HSP90 in 1995 for the treatment of alcoholism, is a pure opioid antagonist and controls the craving for alcohol. However, it also has been shown to cause hepatocellular injury. A Cochrane systematic review of the use of naltrexone and nalmefene (another opioid antagonist) in 29 randomized clinical trials concluded that short-term treatment with naltrexone lowers the risk of relapse.183 Acamprosate (acetylhomotaurine) is a novel drug with structural similarities to the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma amino butyric acid (GABA), and is associated with a reduction in withdrawal symptoms.184 In 15 controlled trials, acamprosate has been shown to reduce withdrawal symptoms, including alcohol craving, but its effects on survival are not yet known.185 Its effect is more pronounced in maintaining rather than inducing remission when used in combination with counseling and support. In detoxified alcoholics, it has been shown to decrease the rate of relapse, maintain abstinence, and decrease severity of relapse when it occurs.