The PDN and the combined PDN + taurine treatments have a similar effect on both histology and plasma enzyme profile. Then, we verified

the real occurrence of a modification in taurine content in target tissues of animals undergoing the combined treatment. The results are shown in Figure 4. A significant increase was found in the fast-twitch muscle TA, while no effects were observed in the slow soleus muscle, likely in relation to its higher basal level of the amino acid. Also a marked significant increase in taurine content has been observed in the brain, while little, if any, effect was observed in the heart. TGF-beta inhibitor Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a complex disease, with several pathways contributing to the progressive muscle degeneration and final fibrosis; so far the temporal and causal sequences of different GSK2118436 cost events are poorly understood. From a pharmacological

point of view, a feasible approach is to use combination of drugs able to target different aspects of the pathology cascade, so as to have positive additive effects on disease course and symptoms. We presently performed a preclinical test of a drug combination clinically relevant for DMD patients. In fact, PDN belongs to the glucocorticoids, the class of drugs clinically used in DMD patients, while taurine is an amino acid commonly used as food and drink supplement, with a claimed energizing activity [27]. The study evaluated if the combination could be an advantage in terms of synergistic action, which Niclosamide could help to reduce steroid dose and in turn the side effects. Also, the outcome of this preclinical study may help to understand the possible variable response to steroids between patients in relation to empirical consumption of taurine as supplement. The results clearly showed that the combination has significant advantages vs. the two drugs alone on in vivo animal strength, showing a remarkable synergistic anabolic action. The increase in animal strength

is indicative of an ameliorative action on the muscular system. However, this in vivo outcome cannot rule out the action of the drugs on other systems, i.e. the peripheral and/or the central nervous system and/or the cardiovascular system, which also have important influences on muscle performance [2]. Thus, it was important to verify the muscle-based effects of the drug association. We have previously described the ability of taurine and, to a lesser extent of PDN, to ameliorate the excitation-contraction coupling of mdx myofibres, determining a shift of the MT towards the more positive potentials typical of WT muscles [8]. This effect of taurine can also be observed upon acute in vitro application to dystrophic myofibres, in line with direct action on mechanisms dealing with calcium handling [29].