The clinical consequences of cancer-induced bone destruction include a worse prognosis, physical damage by bone resection, a high morbidity rate, intractable bone pain, pathological fractures, and hypercalcemia [6]. Localization of tumor cells within the bone leads to the production of tumor-associated factors either synthesized directly by the tumor cell itself or as a result of tumor/stromal interactions. These tumor-associated factors converge on the pre-osteoblast or stromal cell to cause an increase in the level of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa

β ligand (RANKL) and/or a decrease in that of osteoprotegerin (OPG), which ultimately results in activation and survival of osteoclasts, with osteolytic lesions being the result [7]. Osteolysis (process of bone resorption) then leads to the release this website of growth factors derived from bone, including transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) [7] and [8]. These factors increase the production Selleckchem Alectinib of tumor-associated factors or promote tumor growth directly. Thus, tumor cell proliferation and production of tumor-associated factors through the signaling of these pathways are promoted, and the cycle continues. Connective tissue growth

factor (CTGF/CCN2) belongs to the CCN family [9], which consists of six members: CCN1 (Cyr61), CCN2 Sinomenine (CTGF), CCN3 (NOV), CCN4 (WISP-1), CCN5 (WISP-2), and CCN6 (WISP-3) [10], [11] and [12], all of which possess an NH2-terminal signal peptide indicative of their secreted-protein nature. These proteins comprise distinct modules in their structure, i.e., the insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding protein-like module (IGFBP), von Willebrand

factor type C repeat (VWC), thrombospondin type-1 repeat (TSP1), and C-terminal module (CT), except for CCN5, which lacks the CT module. With these modules, the CCN2 protein interacts with a number of extracellular molecules. The IGFBP motif is responsible for binding IGF [13], albeit studies with CCN2 have demonstrated that the interaction of CCN2 with IGF has a much lower affinity than that of authentic IGFBPs [14]. The VWC motif binds to integrin αvβ3 [15] and has been implicated as a binding site for BMP-4 and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) family members, this binding modulating their activity [16]. The TSP-1 motif is involved in binding to integrin α6β1, αvβ3 [15], LRP1 [17], and VEGF [18]. Finally, the CT motif binds integrin αvβ3 and cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) [19]. These different domains of CCN2 could be responsible for the differential signaling of its biological activities (Fig. 1A).