5 levels in all conditions quickly exceeded baseline measurements. The repeated-measures ANOVA on the average PM2.5 levels recorded during the time the cigarette was being selleck inhibitor smoked revealed a main effect of condition, F(4, 45.7) = 214.8, p < .0001 (The Greenhouse�CGeisser correction for departures from sphericity is performed by multiplying the unadjusted univariate degrees of freedom (error) by epsilon, which varies from 0 to 1, with greater departures from sphericity being associated with lower epsilon. In our data, epsilon=.714; thus, the degrees of freedom (error) was reduced from 64 to 45.7. As indicated here, the application of this correction did not change any of the conclusions.). Bonferroni post-hoc tests for the pairwise comparisons indicated that every condition was significantly different from every other one on PM2.

5 levels during the time the cigarette was being smoked (all at p < .001). The same rank ordering of the conditions was obtained for the highest levels of PM2.5 recorded during the monitoring period. The highest peaks were reached during condition 1, when the windows were closed and there was no air conditioning and no car movement. In Condition 1, peak PM2.5 levels in all cars exceeded 2,485.2 ��g/m3, with the highest recorded peak reaching 14,171.5 ��g/m3. The second-highest peaks were reached in Condition 2 (windows closed, no air conditioning, and car being driven); all cars exceeded 1,160.5 ��g/m3. The next-highest peaks were attained in Condition 5 (windows closed, air conditioning on, and car being driven), at 2,283.

5 ��g/m3, and in Condition 4 (with the driver’s side window open about halfway, no air conditioning, and while driving), where the peak was 103.0 ��g/m3. The condition with the lowest peaks was Condition 3, at 30.0 ��g/m3. In Condition 3 (all windows open, no air conditioning, and a 20-min drive), the highest recorded peak reached 321.0 ��g/m3. Figure 2 presents the real-time plots of the average levels of PM2.5 in the two conditions in which there was no airflow, either through windows or through the fan or air conditioner (Condition 1, a stationary, nonrunning car; Condition 2, a 20-min drive with no fan or air conditioner on and with no windows open). Figure 3 presents real-time plots of the average levels of PM2.5 observed during the three conditions in which there was airflow/ventilation, either through windows or through the ventilation system.

Results from the plots illustrate the general trend that, as sources of air circulation were added, the overall and peak levels of exposure decreased. PM2.5 decay across conditions increased with the addition of car movement, air conditioning, and the opening of windows, with all windows open contributing to the greatest decay. Carfilzomib However, even in the most ventilated condition, Condition 3, PM2.5 exposure levels were not eliminated. In addition, the use of air conditioning was not effective at clearing the smoke (p < .