50 Experimental studies51 have shown differential vulnerability of nephron

segments. The straight part (S3) of proximal tubule of superficial nephrons is the first to be involved (pattern I), followed by S2 and S1 segments in the outer cortical labyrinth (pattern II). The proximal parts of deep nephron located in the inner cortical labyrinth and outer stripe of outer medulla (pattern III) are the last to be affected. A characteristic feature of this condition is the high (40–45%) prevalence of urothelial malignancies involving the upper urinary Pictilisib solubility dmso tract and/or urinary bladder.41,45,52 This finding has led some authors to recommend prophylactic nephroureterectomy followed by regular urine cytology and cystoscopy to monitor for bladder malignancies.41 There is no proven therapy for this disorder. Once established, the disease progresses inexorably to renal failure. Steroids and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors have been tried anecdotally, but the effect remains uncertain because of lack of controlled studies. Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) occurs in certain areas of Romania, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia and Bulgaria along the Danube river basin. According to some estimates, 25 000 people have proven or suspected BEN, with the number of people at risk

being over 100 000.53 The similarities between AAN and BEN are striking. As with AAN, early disease is asymptomatic, and diagnosis is made at an advanced stage. Characteristic findings include mild proteinuria, proximal tubular dysfunction, AZD0530 sterile pyuria, anaemia out of proportion to the degree of renal failure and small smooth kidneys.54 Histology shows prominent interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy, with little cellular infiltration and mild glomerular damage. Urothelial malignancies are also characteristically associated with

BEN.53 The possibility that AA might be responsible for BEN was first suggested 40 years ago. Ivic55 found AA in samples of flour in an endemic region, and suggested that the wheat could have been contaminated with seeds of Aristolochia clematitis, a common weed in the fields, leading to chronic AA intoxication. This hypothesis, however, was not pursued. A number of aetiological factors, including heavy metal intoxication, trace metal deficiency, toxicity of hydrocarbons second leached from coal deposits and even viruses, were proposed from time to time.56–58 Ochratoxin, a mycotoxin implicated in porcine nephropathy, has received special attention.59 High quantities of ochratoxin have been detected in food items in endemic areas,60 and patients with BEN have been shown to have high blood and urinary levels of the toxin.61 An aetiological relationship, however, could not be conclusively established in experimental studies.62 Evidence supporting a cause and effect relationship between AA and BEN was presented by Grollman et al.