Similar problems beset attempts to understand how deletions in the region 22q11 give rise to cognitive disabilities.39 DiGeorge (DGS), velocardiofacial (VCFS), and conotruncal anomaly face (CTAF) syndromes are different phenotypic manifestations of deletions within 22q11. Both DGS and VCFS are associated with intellectual disability; additionally

psychosis is found in some patients with VCFS. The region most consistently contains at least Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 14 genes. Cloning and sequencing of the entire region has not identified any obvious candidates for the cognitive defect and it now seems likely that the syndromes arise from combined monosomy of more than one gene. Aneuploidy Given the difficulties encountered in investigating the segmental aneusomies, then trying to identify specific Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical genes responsible for the abnormalities found in aneuplodies, where there is an abnormality in the number of a whole chromosome, might seem impossible. However comparison

between individuals with partial aneuploidy of a chromosome has allowed the definition of critical regions in both Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21)40,41 and Turner syndrome (XO) .42 Candidate genes for some of the somatic features of Turner syndrome have been proposed: SHOX/PHOG encodes Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a homeodomain protein that may explain the short stature,43,44 while RPS4Y encodes an isoform of a ribosomal small subunit protein.45,46 Identification of genes for features other than short stature has been problematic. There are no candidates for the unusual cognitive profile. However, there is one report that Turner syndrome patients with a paternally derived X chromosome have superior verbal abilities Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and skills involved in social interactions.47,48 In work on Down’s syndrome, attention has been focused on the region 21q22.2 as a potential site for dosage-sensitive genes that affect learning and behavior. On the basis of transgenic mouse experiments, a homologue of the Drosophila gene minibrain Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical has been identified as a candidate.49,50 The gene encodes a tyrosine/serine kinase expressed in INK1197 research buy developing neuroblasts and a human gene lies in the Down’s syndrome-critical

chromosomal region 21q22. However, as with the segmental aneusomies, there is a proliferation of Down’s syndrome critical region (DSCR) genes; as yet oxyclozanide no definitive evidence of their role in intellectual disability has been provided. Nonsyndromic intellectual disability Perhaps the most striking finding to emerge from the study of nonsyndromic XLMR is the discovery of mutations in genes affecting different components of the Rho-signaling pathway (Table II).51 Two genes, oligophrenin-1 (OPHN1) and ARHGEF6, directly affect the Rho-activation cycle. OPHN1 encodes a Rho-GAP protein (GAP for GTPase [guanosine triphosphatase]-activating protein) that stimulates the intrinsic GTPase activity of Rho, Rac, and Cdc42.